Global
Governance is the "collection of governance-related activists, rules and mechanisms,
formal and informal, existing at a variety of levels in the world today".
Global Governance is a broad, dynamic and complex process of interactive decision
making at a global level that involves formal and informal mechanisms as well
as governmental and non governmental bodies. States and governments remain the
primary institution for articulating public interests and those of the global
community as a whole, but global governance also involves intergovernmental and
sometimes, supranational bodies. Global policy is made by a system of
horizontal and vertical interactions in which officials in different branches
of government work with counterparts in other countries as well as with
activists, scientists, bankers and others outside government. The term
"global governance" is sometimes used more narrowly to refer to the
institutions through which these interactions take place.
It is
important not to confuse Global governance with these three other concepts:
International anarchy refers to the absence of a supranational authority capable of regulating the behaviour of states.
Global hegemony refers to is a powerful state
that possesses a pre-eminent military, economic and ideological recourses so it
is able to impose its will within a region or worldwide.
World government refers to the idea of all of human kind united under one political authority.
So is Global Governance now a reality?
Liberal theorists argue that there
is an unmistakeable and perhaps irresistible trend to favour global governance.
The growth of international organizations provides both evidence of a greater
willingness amongst states to cooperate and engage in collective
action, and fosters further cooperation by strengthening trust amongst states,
accustoming them to rule governed behaviour. In the sense that global
governance is closely linked to globalization, its noticeably may fluctuate but
it is likely to grow over time with a tendency towards interdependence and
interconnectedness, if this is established it will be difficult to reverse. This
is demonstrated by developments ranging from international migration, global
terrorism and transnational criminal organisations and global pandemics.
However the extent to which the world as a whole has become orderly and norm governed
should not be exaggerated.
UN and peacekeeping has been both effective and non effective when the cost of the conflicts and the final death toll are compared. A study by the Rand Corporation analysed eight UN peacekeeping operations found that seven of them had succeeded in keeping the peace and six even began to promote democracy. These cases included the Congo, Cambodia, Namibia, Mozambique, El Salvador, East Timor, Eastern Slavonia and Sierra Leone. There has however been a substantial amount of peacekeeping failures , notably Rwanda, Somalia and Bosnia:
UN peacekeepers did not do much to stop the genocide in Rwanda in 1994.
UN backed US intervention in Somalia led to too great embarrassment after forced withdrawal in 1995.
The Bosnian-Serb military in 1995 carried out the worst mass murder in Europe since the second world war in the "safe area" of Srebrenica, which had been under the protection of a UN regiment of Dutch peacekeepers.
Critics say such events are evidence of the danger of intervention in foreign countries lacking cival order and legitimate political institutions, others argue that they highlight the flaws failings with the UN system. Failures on the ground could be due to:
The lack of a clear mission.
The security challenges that that put peacekeepers at risk.
The varying quality of peacekeeping fores and a confusing chain of command.
The reluctance to use force when faced with peace breakers who use force criminally.
Failings at a higher level could be due to a lack of political will and conflicting priorities and agendas in the security council and among other member states, a recent example of this is the inability of the UN to take action in Syria because Russia and China are allies of Assad , both countries hold a veto so action against Assad is not possible.
Their is however evidence to suggest than the UN has learn its lessons. In 1992 their was a UN report, "An Agenda for Peace" and ever since that report their has been an understanding that peacekeeping alone is not enough to ensure lasting peace. Their is now a growing emphasis on peace building that generates peace structures that will that will strengthen the peace in order to avoid a relapse in to conflict , ensuring a positive peace. Although the military remain the key player in most peace keeping operations, other actors now include economists, administrators, legal experts, police officers, electoral observers, human rights monitors and specialists in civil affairs and governance. In 2005 the UN Peacebuilding Commission was established as an advisory subsidiary body of General Assembly and Security Council. It's purpose is to support peace efforts in countries emerging from conflict, by bringing together all relevant actors, marshaling resources, and advising on and proposing integrated strategies for post conflict and peace building and recovery. The downside to this is that being advisory means that the Peacebuilding Commission can accomplish little through its own efforts, the greater emphasis within the UN of peace building is an acknowledgement that classical peacekeeping is effectively obsolete and that peace enforcement is always difficult and may only be possible under specific conditions. Peace building as a whole is promoting peace and security mixed with a commitment to economic and social development.
Is America the biggest Super Power in the World? or do they have a Kryptonite?
Is the USA a global hegemon?
The most powerful nation in the world may also be known as a global hegemon, but the question is, a the USA the global Hegemon? or is it another country, China?, Russia?, do we even have a global hegemony?
It can not be denied that the USA is a powerful country it has a global military dominance, economic resilience, a high population and unrivalled structural power. It has however been argued that the USA is no longer a global hegemon because the power of the military is becoming redundant, America has suffered relative economic decline, the USA has damaged soft power and a decline in diplomatic influence. This blog will look at both sides of the argument to decide whether or not America is the most powerful nation in the state system.
Military Power
+ Global military dominance
The USA has a massive military lead over the rest of the world. In 2011 the 42% of the worlds military spending was spent by America, and had a five hold lead over China which is the second largest military spender. The USA has over 700 military bases in over 100 countries, as well as a strong lead in high tech weaponry and air power. The USA is the only country that can intervene militarily in any part of the world and sustain multiple operations.
- Redundant military power
Dominant military power may no longer be a secure basis for hegemony. There is a huge gap between the destructive capacity of the US military machine and what it can achieve politically. The forced withdrawals of the US military from Lebanon in 1984 and Somalia in 1993, and the difficulty of winning the asymmetrical wars of Iraq and Afghanistan, demonstrate how the use of terrorist, irregular armies and insurrectionist tactics can prevent the most advanced power from victory.
Economic power
+ Economic resilience
32% of the worlds spending on research and development is spent by the USA, giving the country an almost impregnable technological lead over other countries ensuring high productivity levels. China is decades away from matching the USA in technologically advanced economic sectors. Furthermore, just as the British empire remained a global hegemony until the mid-twentieth century despite being overtaken by the USA and Germany, which suggests the USA may be able continue to maintain global leadership in a world in which it is no longer the economic number one.
- Economic recline
Although the USA remains the worlds largest economy, its competitors, especially China and India, having been growing very quickly in recent years, with the Chinese economy set to overtake the US economy by 2020. The 2007-09 global financial crisis may have further weakened the USA by exposing floors in the US economic model and making people question the dollar's position as the worlds leading currency.
Soft power
+ The US Population
The US population is expected to reach 439 million by 2050, with big increases in the number of Hispanics and Asians, helping to build on economic performance and keep the US's populations average age relatively low in comparison to the ageing population of Europe, Japan and China. Associated with this is the highly educated and skilled nature of the skilled population, practically in areas such as science and technology. It is commonly accepted that up to seven of US universities feature in the worlds top 10, while no Asian university has ever entered the top 20.
- Damaged soft power
The USA's soft power has declined in a number of ways. Its reputation has been damaged by its association with corporate power and the widening of global inequality causing resentment from developing countries and causing them to be against globalisation and Americanisation. Serious damage has also been done to the USA's moral authority by the "war on terror" generally and the Iraq war in particular, made worse by the treatment of prisoners at Abu Ghraib and in the Guantanamo detention camp.
+ Unrivalled structural power
The USA exercises disproportional influence over the institutions of global economic governance and over NATO. Despite the growing influence of the developing world and of emerging economies, no country is close to challenging the USA's influence over global economic decision- making. This was reflected in the leading role that the USA played is formulating a global response to the 2007-09 global financial crisis.
- Declining diplomatic power
The USA has lost influence in Latin America, it has to rely on Chinese diplomacy to exert influence over North Korea, EU diplomacy to exert influence over Iran and its capacity to exert pressure on Israel is also limited. Furthermore China and Russia are largely immune from US diplomatic pressure. The decline in the USA's structural power is also evident in the rise of the G-20 as the key forum of global economic policy-making.
To conclude
It does appear that America is the most powerful nation in the state system because even though the way global power works is different from how it use to be and the USA needs to keep up with the changes if it wants to remain a global hegemon.
Globalisation refers to the idea homogenisation, ideas, cultures and institutions making the global community appear to be united, but Globalisation has its problems the integration of global tensions can cause tensions i.e.. Islam vs. the West. It can be argued that Globalisation was set up primarily for the spread of western culture and its ideology of liberalism. At the centre of this western domination, according to critics, is American society. Globalisation is Americanisation, and Americanism symbolises the good and the bad not only of Western culture, but the also the liberal philosophy that guides the whole operation. The questions are is how far does Homogenisation of western culture go?, How powerful is America in Westernisation compared to other western countries, and is westernisation a good thing?.
Globalisation
Globalisation is a complex concept and therefore is rather difficult to precisely define, Globalisation refers to the emergence of countries across the world because of advances in technology, communication and transportation, these innovations are not effected by traditional barriers and boarders between countries that once kept states separate, leading, to what some believe to a flattering of the world. Globalisation can be put in to three sections, political, economic and cultural globalisation.
Economic Globalisation
Western liberal economic values and the ideology of neoliberalism have been put into place all over the world as now virtually the whole world a free market economy. Richer countries, such as the USA can exert power over poorer countries by loaning or giving them money in exchange for power and resources.
Political Globalisation
The western political ideology of capitalism triumphed in the cold war after the fall of communism. Liberal democracy was the only option for some third world countries and because of its moral rights, particularly on its concentration on human rights made it easier to sell to other countries therefore making liberal democracy a universal ideal that and standard assessing of the worth and competence of all societies.
International Interdependence
The recognition of interdependence in the worlds societies is important when understanding Globalisation. The realisation that all countries in the world stand to lose by environmentally unsustainable modes of production made environmental sustainability a universal value. International relations have become more concerned with environmental issues and the management of a nations population and resources is now the concern of other nations, since mistreatment of the environment has serious consequences not only for the abuser of the environment but for all who occupy the global space.
Communication and Technology
The reduction of barriers of space, time, national boundaries and sovereignty due to advancements communication and transportation technologies is another important feature of globalism. A prominent development in this respect is the introduction of the Internet, this has allowed humans to interact and communicate without restrictions of state. The fluidity of national boundaries has also encouraged mass migration, which has resulted in the emergence of global cities such as London, New York and Tokyo.
National Sovereignty
Globalisation often undermines sovereignty of nation states, this led to the abandoning of the value of self determination in states. The ability of the international community to not only influence political actors but sanction them has become a reality. For these reasons Globalisation is seen to encourage fragmentation.
Globalisation tends to favour western views:
A reason why Globalisation tends to favour the west may be because of historical reasons because the west has had many centres to exert its dominance over other societies, but some critics go further and say that the West uses its power and influence through globalisation to drag other countries into their dominance and exploit them. Many people believe that Globalism mainly entails the spread of liberal capitalist values by the West, and to bring non Western societies into western culture to create a hegemony.
Hegemony and Homogenisation
The forced adoption of western values on non western countries, Homogenisation has no negative effect on western societies compared to other societies, some the benefits of unification for western society will grow at the expense of other societies. The Homogenisation of western culture is widely caused by western media and literature, America spreads it influences through entertainment industries such as Hollywood, Disney and Marvel all which promote western values, before America was the most powerful western country English literature played a huge part in spreading western values with famous writers such as William Shakespeare, Charles Dickens and Arthur Conan Doyle.
Americanisation
Ever since the end of the second world war America has arguably been the most powerful country in the modern world. Their was a period where the USA was competing for hegemony with the USSR, but America were the victors of the cold war and after it the were able to gain hegemonic status and exert their influence across the world. The shape of the world today has been highly affected by Americas wants and aspirations. America is a very diverse country and has links all across the world so its ambition to spread its ideology's through globalisation was to be expected. America may be seen as a representative of the west because even though it is not the founder of western culture (America didn't even exist when western culture started) it is the most powerful western state. As America became globalised, globalisation became Americanised.
World Culture
Some believe that because of the free market exists in the international system it is American culture and the American version of the English language that is the closest thing we have to a world culture and scientists, professionals and business people of the world look to America to see where the world is headed to in the future. Others disagree with this and believe that it is impossible to have a world culture and America can only can only influence the world with ideas, values, symbols etc. and some believe that Americas power is to much and will one day backfire negatively affecting both America and other countries.
American Hegemony and Philosophy
America has always been a highly pragmatic country and a strong desire to get things done. Key American thinkers such as William James, John Dewey and C.S. Pierce emphasize the importance of this kind of thinking in Americas growth. Their is a certain impatience in American Philosophy for ideas that are to remote for reality or a theoretical position that cannot generate immediate action. This American desire for immediacy reflects the entirety of American culture and the fact the the country's main aim is economic growth.
Liberalism and Imperialism
Imperialism (a policy of extending a country's power and influence by colonization, use of military force or other means) seems to be part of the Western Liberalism agenda. American Liberalism is influenced by its western heritage. Americas political philosophy is presented in their constitution to include equality,liberty, human rights and popular sovereignty. Individualism, however, also heavily influences american liberalism. Individualism leads to ambition and because of this some argue is why america has formed a global hegemony. According to some individualism is manifested in four main ways: human rationality, human freemen, human responsibility and the ability to cooperate with other humans.
Globalisation and American liberalism
America has formed a Hegemony without outright colonization although they do hold a lot power over a lot of countries without having an empire, however this power and influence could be seen as a modern empire. Through the media and the triumph of liberal capitalism in the cold war America has managed to sell the idea of "the American dream". Through their high influence over international organisations such as the International monetary fund the USA is able to trap poorer countries into long term debt leading them dependent on the USA leaving America capable of exerting influence over them.
The legitimacy of Imperialism
The effect of certain polices on non-western countries has been devastating, apart from making an already bad situation worse, they have bought about social and political crisis's. The devaluation of western countries currencies led to them being exploited by transnational corporations controlled by the west. The new global order has led to a social crisis and wide spread instability in non western countries whereas in western countries it has bought economic development.
Inequality
Globalisation is often seen as an american project that has deepened the differences in the world. Unification, which is seen to be the biggest achievement of the west, is seen by many as a negative one. The paradox is that the countries of the world may seem close in terms of access among one another , but they are in-fact extremely far apart from each other in terms of quality of life as the West is very affluent whereas many non western countries struggle with extreme poverty. Furthermore many believe that the wealth of the west is the reason for the dire situations of others. Globalisation therefore, rather then encouraging integration has in-fact done the opposite.
Trauma
Whether the process is called globalization or Americanization, it is argued the the scheme has bought much trauma upon poorer countries. Globalization may lead to a global crisis due to vast inequality and injustice of the american controlled world order. Some believe that liberal capitalism has polarized global society along the class lines, they believe that Liberal capitalism has polarized between the oppressive wealth of the North and the poor and oppressed countries of the South.
Alternative ideas
Some theorists believe that their are alternative to this hegemonic and unequal world and believe if Liberalism concentrate less on individualism that the world could be a fairer place.
To Conclude:
Globalism does appear to be Americanization in disguise but how far it will go is impossible to foresee, the complete spread of american culture all across the world may not be possible or plausible but nevertheless america seems to have a larger cultural and political impact over the world then any other country.
Realism is an ideology which claims it views the world in a "realistic" way, they aim to avoid wishful thinking. Realists believe that global politics is about power and self interest, as Hans Morgenthau states "politics is a struggle of power over men, and whatever its ultimate aim may be, power is its immediate goal and the modes of acquiring, maintaining and demonstrating it determine the technique of political action". According to realists that power politics is based on two core assumptions:
People are essentially selfish and competitive, meaning that egotism the defining characteristic of human nature.
The In terms of Global politics the state-system is a form of international anarchy, in that their is no higher authority than the sovereignty in each individual state.
Realist theory can be summed up in a equation: egotism+anarchy=power politics. Their are four themes to realism: State egoism, Statecraft, International anarchy and finally Polarity and stability
Evaluating Realism, is it still relevant?
Realism was dominant during the post war period, Its relevance slightly slipped after the cold war however, as realist believe in Bi-polarity which disappeared after the cold war because the USSR was no longer a superpower. In the modern world it could be said that Realism dose not exist on a global scale, because realists believe that states should be left to run themselves and this does not always happen in the modern world because of US foreign policy and the "war on terror" which means the US intervenes in other state in order to get rid of terrorism and spread democracy, which is not realist and may be considered as "post neorealism" or "neoclassical realism". Despite all this however the overall relevance of global realism is rarely doubted and should be considered when analyzing international relations.
Liberalism
The founders of liberalism.
Liberals believe in harmony and balance between competing interests such as different groups and cultures and although the accept that individual people and States can be selfish they also believe that humans have a genuine desire to be good and care about the whole community not just themselves and when conflict does occur Liberals believe that most of the time a natural equilibrium will occur. Although Liberal views on international politics do have some similarities to realists views one of the key differences is that liberals believe their is a lot of cooperation between the different countries in order to keep peace. Their are thee different branches of liberalism:
Interdependence Liberalism.
Republican Liberalism.
Liberal Institutionalism.
Liberals do not believe that war is inevitable and that world trade and global institutions such as the UN and the EU helps countries bargain, discuss issues and prevent war.
Evaluating Liberalism, is it still relevant?
Liberalism has received interest since the 1970s, due to the increase in Globalisation and the the Liberal political economy help showed the positives of Globalisation. Liberalism, however has received criticism because the different strands of Liberal thinking often contradict each other as some unconditionally support free trade and others also believe in free trade but with restrictions and regulations on capitalism to avoid exploitation, these liberals tend also to believe in restrictions on transnational corporations so they don't end up being more powerful then certain countries thus undermining democracy where as the other liberals would argue that corporate power is necessary to keeping peace among nations (Dell theory of conflict prevention). Despite its contradictions Liberalism is still seen as an important Ideology that should always be considered in international politics because of it belief in corporation are a necessity.
After the second world war the allies decided that a homeland was needed for the Jewish people, after the atrocities that had been inflicted on them in the Holocaust, Israel seemed like the perfect place as within it lies the city of Jerusalem, which is the holy land for Jews (also Christians and Muslims), but the country was already populated with Palestinians (who are mostly Muslim) and when the Jewish people started to migrate tension between the two peoples grew and before long war broke out, the conflict is still going on today and it can be argued that the Palestinians have been hit the hardest by the conflict:
As the Palestinians and Israelis both live the same country: Israel: their is only one government and the conflict is seen as a civil war, The Palestinians want a two state system but the Israelis hatred would put them at risk if the Palestinians gained statehood.
In 2011 Mahmoud Abbas, the chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organisation, submitted a request for Palestinian Statehood and in 2012 the UN voted and Palestine did not gain Statehood but it was recognised as a "non member observer state" which gave Palestine access to UN bodies.
By April 2013, 132 of the UN's 193 members recognized Palestine as state but it is yet to gain statehood.
It could be argued that the Israel vs Palestine conflict is not just about war but about religion: Judaism vs Islam, or even culture as many western cultures such as the US and the UK have taken Israel's which could may build further tensions between Islam and the West.
In Westphalia born and raised, on the war ground is where I spent most of my days...
The Peace treaty of Westphalia was signed on the 24th of October marking the end of the thirty year war, The war was one of the most destructive in Europe's history. The war was more of a series connected wars rather then just one big war, it started when Austrian Hasburgs tried to impose Roman Catholicism on their Protestant subjects in Bohemia, from their things escalated and soon Catholics and Protstants were at war throughout most of Europe.
The war was largely fought on German soil and reduced the country to desolation. Pillage and famine stalked the German countryside as armies plundered through towns and villages. The awful lives that many Germans lived made many of them question whether their was a God at all: "no one could imagine that anything like this could ever happen to us, Many people say their is no God..." read an entry in a family bible. Starvation reached such a high that in Rhineland their were reports of cannibalism. Even when the war ended many smallfolk said their livelihood was gone.
The peace conference to end the war started in December 1644 in Munster and Osnabruck, 194 states took part in the peace committees. For the first six months of the meetings the leaders spent most of their time arguing about mundane things like who was going to sit where, but things begun to settle down and eventually, after four years, the peace treaty was signed.
Many states made gains from the treaty, the Swiss gained independence from Austria and the Netherlands gained independence from Spain, Sweden and gained territory and payment in cash, and many other States also benefited from the treaty.
The war had ended in Protestant victory and changed Europe forever, It sore an end to many years of Roman Catholicism and culture and a beginning to the state system in Europe, it also made many European countries allies and paved the way to future institutions like the European Union.
The G7 is a group of seven countries with advanced economies. Members include the United States, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan and the United Kingdom. These countries meet annually to discuss various issues such as energy policy and International security but the main aim of the comity is to discuss Global Economic Governance. The G7 was formally known as the G8 until 2014 when Russia was suspended from the comity because of the war in Crimea and tensions rising in Ukraine.
Unlike The EU and The UN, The G7 is not a formal institution with a charter is instead has a Presidency that rotates annually among the member states. Whomever is holds the current Presidency is responsible for arranging logistics and setting the agenda. Ministers and envoys prepare policy initiatives at meetings which precede to the annual summit of political leaders.
G7 2015
The Greek bailout, Climate change and Ukraine dominated the G7 agenda this year. This years host was Angela Merkel who is the Chancellor of Germany, the summit was held in the remote town of Schloss Elmau which is located in Bavaria. 20 000 police were on patrol to minimise the disruption of G7 protesters. As well as the seven country leaders, Donald Tusk (The European council President), Jean-Claude Junker (The EU commission President) and Christine Lagarde (Director of the IMF) also attended the summit to update the President of America Barack Obama on the Greek bailout.
Obama pressed the European leaders show more resolve to maintain sanctions against Russia when it comes to Ukraine. Obama rang the Ukrainian President, Petro Poroshenko, and visited Ukraine on the way to the summit in a sign of solidarity.
Merkel had ensured that the communique at this summit included a long-term aim to limit global warming to below two degrees. Merkel wanted countries to commit to the Green Climate Fund, which is aiming for $100 billion by 2020. Germany recently doubled its contribution to $8 billion and Merkel has personally called on all industrial countries to contribute. Doubts remain, however, about Obama’s ability to get any tough climate change agreement through Congress, as he has been examining ways to circumvent the legislature.
The summit is also discussed the fight against Islamic State, and the following Monday a meeting between Obama and the prime minister of Iraq, Haider al-Abadi was held.
On the economy, Obama reassured allies that Congress will back the Trans-Pacific Partnership, a massive deal spanning the Pacific Rim.
Other Topics of the summit included improving labour rights for textile workers, fighting antibiotics resistance and cleaning up oceanic pollution.
CRITICISM OF THE G7
The G7 is sometimes criticised because it does not do enough to solve some global problems such as third World Debt, global warming and the AIDS epidemic: due to strict medicine patent policy and other issues related to globalization. In Unravelling Global Apartheid, the political analyst Titus Alexander described the G7 as the 'cabinet' of global minority rule, with a coordinating role in world affairs.
